Water Quality.

Why are substances checked in water/effect water?

     Nitrate: High nitrate levels in water can cause methemoglobinemia or blue baby syndrome, a condition found especially in infants under six months. The stomach acid of an infant is not as strong as in older children and adults. This causes an increase in bacteria that can readily convert nitrate to nitrite (NO₂). Do not let infants drink water that exceeds 10 mg/l NO₃-N. This includes formula preparation.

Nitrite is absorbed in the blood, and hemoglobin (the oxygen-carrying component of blood) is converted to methemoglobin. Methemoglobin does not carry oxygen efficiently. This results in a reduced oxygen supply to vital tissues such as the brain. Methemoglobin in infant blood cannot change back to hemoglobin, which normally occurs in adults. Severe methemoglobinemia can result in brain damage and death.

     pH: pH is a measurement of how acidic or how alkaline something is. Your blood is maintained, as a priority above all else, at a pH of 7.3 to 7.45. Too great a variation from this optimal range is life threatening. For example, at a blood pH of about 6.95, you would likely go into a coma and, without medical help, possibly die. Skin is healthiest at a pH of about 4.7. This is very acidic. Acidic skin provides you protection against bacterial infections entering through your skin. Most external pHs are normally acidic and most internal pHs are normally alkaline. Neutral is 7.0. Anything less than 7.0 is acidic. Anything greater than 7.0 is alkaline. Everything your body does to produce energy and to continue life produces acidic waste products. To maintain life and health, your body must neutralize and/or dispose of these acids. Clinically, it has been my experience that individuals with the most chronic and the most difficult problems are those people with the most acidic bodily fluids. The results of your body being unable to neutralize and eliminate excess acidic wastes are endless. Among many others, some of the more recognizable conditions that are caused or worsened by excessively acidic conditions are:

• High blood pressure
• Diabetes
• Allergies
• Arthritis
• Cancer
• Asthma
• Degenerative joint diseases
• Osteoporosis
• Digestive problems.   - The effects on streams could mean what type of fish live there and/or other aquatic life. Fish tend to take a higher endangerment of acidic water than less acidic.  

     Conductivity: An electrical current results from the motion of electrically charged particles in response to forces that act on them from an applied electric field. Within most solid materials a current arise from the flow of electrons, which is called electronic conduction. In all conductors, semiconductors, and many insulated materials only electronic conduction exists, and the electrical conductivity is strongly dependent on the number of electrons available to participate to the conduction process. Most metals are extremely good conductors of electricity, because of the large number of free electrons that can be excited in an empty and available energy state. 
In water and ionic materials or fluids a net motion of charged ions can occur. This phenomenon produce an electric current and is called ionic conduction.Electrical conductivity is defined as the ratio between the current density (J) and the electric field intensity (e) and it is the opposite of the transitivity.

Pure water is not a good conductor of electricity. Ordinary distilled water in equilibrium with carbon dioxide of the air has a conductivity of about 10 x 10^-6 W^-1*m^-1 (20 dS/m). Because the electrical current is transported by the ions in solution, the conductivity increases as the concentration of ions increases.
Thus conductivity increases as water dissolved ionic species. Most of the time the life in streams are not effected by this.



     Turbidity: Turbidity is the measure of water clarity. The more suspended solids in the water, the murkier it becomes. The increased turbidity of water can reduce the diversity of life in three ways:

• Suspended particles absorb heat from sunlight and warm the water. Warmer water holds less oxygen and organisms begin to suffer. Also, some organisms can not live in the warmer water.
• Particles also block sunlight. Plants and algae grow less and release less oxygen from photosynthesis.
• Particles also settle on the bottom and can cover and suffocate fish eggs and insect larvae

Turbidity is often tested by dropping a Secchi disk into the water and measuring at what depth it disappears. This test is not practical in the Los Angeles River, however. Instead purchase a kit, such as the La Motte turbidity test, which involves observing a dot at the bottom of a column of water.


     Dissolved Oxygen: Dissolved oxygen analysis measures the amount of gaseous oxygen (O2) dissolved in an aqueous solution. Oxygen gets into water by diffusion from the surrounding air, by aeration (rapid movement), and as a waste product of photosynthesis. Total dissolved gas concentrations in water should not exceed 110 percent. Concentrations above this level can be harmful to aquatic life. Fish in waters containing excessive dissolved gases may suffer from "gas bubble disease"; however, this is a very rare occurrence. The bubbles or emboli block the flow of blood through blood vessels causing death. External bubbles (emphysema) can also occur and be seen on fins, on skin and on other tissue. Aquatic invertebrates are also affected by gas bubble disease but at levels higher than those lethal to fish.
Adequate dissolved oxygen is necessary for good water quality. Oxygen is a necessary element to all forms of life. Natural stream purification processes require adequate oxygen levels in order to provide for aerobic life forms. As dissolved oxygen levels in water drop below 5.0 mg/l, aquatic life is put under stress. The lower the concentration, the greater the stress. Oxygen levels that remain below 1-2 mg/l for a few hours can result in large fish kills. 

     Temperature: Temperature like any other time can obviously effect an ecosystem. Temperature in water can effect what lives there. Including bacteria. A stream is normally on the chilly side if you've ever put your feet in one on a hot summer day. Yet, it's still cold? That's due to many other things that can contribute to it. Fish tend to live and prosper in colder waters, which I always thought the opposite of. Warmer waters tend to not hold enough oxygen in the water for plant life to grow neither. Many bacteria's love warmer water, as goes for the same on dry land. Bacteria like warm, dark, damp places. What better than the stream? The amount of bacteria growth also dictates what can grow there, therefor if the aquatic life has no food due to the warmth/bacteria growing, the aquatic life can not live there as well. It as well can dictate the turbidity. 


     Alkalinity: The alkalinity of water is a measure of how much acid it can neutralize. If any changes are made to the water that could raise or lower the pH value, alkalinity acts as a buffer, protecting the water and its life forms from sudden shifts in pH. This ability to neutralize acid, or H+ ions, is particularly important in regions affected by acid rain. Total alkalinity is affected by environmental factors; rain, acidic sanitizers, addition of fill water and other product applications can all change the alkalinity over time. Most alkalinity in surface water comes from calcium carbonate, CaCO3, being leached from rocks and soil. This process is enhanced if the rocks and soil have been broken up for any reason, such as mining or urban development. Limestone contains especially high levels of calcium carbonate and when used to decrease acidity in homes can runoff into surface waters and increase alkalinity. Alkalinity is significant in the treatment of waste-water and drinking water because it will influence treatment processes such as anaerobic digestion. Water may also be unsuitable for use in irrigation if the alkalinity level in the water is higher than the natural level of alkalinity in the soil.



     E. Coli: E. coli is a type of fecal coliform bacteria commonly found in the intestines of animals and humans. E. coli is short for Escherichia coli. The presence of E. coli in water is a strong indication of recent sewage or animal waste contamination. Sewage may contain many types of disease-causing organisms. E. coli comes from human and animal wastes. During rainfalls, snow melts, or other types of precipitation, E. coli may be washed into creeks, rivers, streams, lakes, or ground water. When these waters are used as sources of drinking water and the water is not treated or inadequately treated, E. coli may end up in drinking water. 
E. coli O157:H7 is one of hundreds of strains of the bacterium E. coli. Although most strains are harmless and live in the intestines of healthy humans and animals, this strain produces a powerful toxin and can cause severe illness. Infection often causes severe bloody diarrhea and abdominal cramps; sometimes the infection causes non-bloody diarrhea. Frequently, no fever is present. It should be noted that these symptoms are common to a variety of diseases, and may be caused by sources other than contaminated drinking water.
In some people, particularly children under 5 years of age and the elderly, the infection can also cause a complication called hemolytic uremic syndrome, in which the red blood cells are destroyed and the kidneys fail. About 2%-7% of infections lead to this complication. In the United States, hemolytic uremic syndrome is the principal cause of acute kidney failure in children, and most cases of hemolytic uremic syndrome are caused by E. coli O157:H7. Hemolytic uremic syndrome is a life-threatening condition usually treated in an intensive care unit. Blood transfusions and kidney dialysis are often required. With intensive care, the death rate for hemolytic uremic syndrome is 3%-5%. The same can go for any stream life that may prosper. 




     

Opposing Mountaintop Removal.

    

You could ask yourself "do I take little things for advantage" and probably turn up with the answer of "no." When in all reality, you really don't know what you got, until it's gone...

     Mountaintop Removal is a form of surface mining that is also the leading form of coal 
removal in the Appalachian Mountains. It is done by first removing all topsoil, plants, and trees from the area that is to be mined. Explosives are then used to expose the underlying coal seams, often between 500 and 800 feet below the surface. Huge drills, called drag lines  dig deeper into the heart of the mountain to extract the coal. Coal companies prefer using drag lines when excavating coal because it requires much less human power to run these machines than traditional methods of excavation. The coal is then cleaned for safer burning and usage. The waste from cleaning the coal, however, is stored in what is essentially an open hole in the ground. The mountain is then reshaped into a plateau and grass is planted. Though minimal efforts are taken to reshape and replant what was lost, the mountains and surrounding communities are severely affected by MTR and are never left the same. Bills such as the Appalachia Restoration Act aim to protect mining communities from the harm of MTR by regulating waste dumped into sources of drinking water and reducing MTR itself. Support for such bills is necessary in order to preserve our natural environment, and protect the towns and people in the surrounding areas of the Appalachian Mountains.


One of the reasons Mountaintop Removal is such a popular form of mining today is because 
it is one of the cheapest and fastest ways of extracting coal. Michael Shnayerson, author of the 2008 book Coal River, states that miners are able to extract one hundred percent of the coal from the seams of rock as opposed to only seventy percent of the coal in underground mining. Debra Glidden, in her Environmental Encyclopedia article titled "Surface Mining," suggests that capital costs of surface mines are at least half of what the development of underground mines cost. 

Though MTR may be more productive in producing coal, it is imperative to look at how MTR is negatively affecting the environment and at other alternatives to obtaining coal. One must then ask if the pros of Mountaintop Removal mining outweigh the damaging effects it has on the environment and our people. MTR produces a huge amount of waste and debris that pollutes surrounding communities. After using explosives to blast away the sides of mountains, debris coats the towns in valleys below. MTR also produces large amounts of sulfur from the coal. In 2009, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) stated that "exposure to high concentrations of sulfur dioxide can include effects on breathing, respiratory illness, alterations in pulmonary defenses, and aggravation of existing cardiovascular disease." In addition, sulfur emissions from coal mining can cause damage to historic buildings. 

In addition to the debris that falls over the towns, MTR pollutes nearby rivers. Solid waste from mining is literally dumped into the valleys and streams below. Many harmful toxins such as iron, arsenic, and lead contaminate the rivers and streams. According to Glidden, one of the products of Mountaintop Removal is acid. The acid and minerals from the runoff contaminate the water supply and make it extremely unsafe to consume. Many residents of nearby communities suffer from "liver and kidney problems, various forms of cancer, and skin rashes" as a result of long-term exposure to such minerals and acids. Other organisms are also directly affected by MTR. Another statement by the EPA said that pollutants in the water from MTR had a "negative impact on fish and macro invertebrates leading to a less diverse and more pollutant tolerant species". The forests are being torn down before blasting. 

Compared to the hundreds of years it takes to grow such a forest, man cuts it down in less than a few months. Some animals are forced out of the way, migratory patterns of birds are disrupted, and the organisms that can't move out of the way quickly enough are killed. Although it is mandated by the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 that miners must restore vegetation after reclamation of mining sites, the leveled mountains are often used as grazing pastures for animals. The trees are replaced by grass which not only does not produce as much oxygen as trees, but also does not grow as well because of the acidic soil. The effects of MTR on all life in the surrounding areas are devastating.

Another extreme danger of Mountaintop Removal is that the liquid waste produced by MTR is stored in what is called a coal slurry impoundment. The waste is whatever material is leftover from the coal cleaning process, often a mixture of "water, coal dust, clay, and toxic chemicals such as arsenic, mercury, lead, copper, and chromium" One impoundment can hold billions of gallons of waste from a single facility. Sometimes, due to lack of care to the structure of these dams, the impoundments will breach and flood entire the community. On February 26, 1972, 132 million gallons of coal sludge flooded Buffalo Creek Hollow in Logan County, West Virginia, with disastrous results: "125 were killed, 1,100 were injured, and 4,000 were left homeless". Because impoundments are often located less than a mile away from mining communities, many towns are in danger of seeing similar disasters. Mountaintop Removal mining is not worth risking the lives of innocent bystanders. 

MTR miners worry that if we discontinue Mountaintop Removal, they will lose their jobs and not have any way to pay bills and care for their families. However, one of the reasons coal companies look to MTR as the preferred method of mining is because it does not require a large labor force. If we reintroduce underground mining to Appalachia, miners will find there will actually be a higher demand for miners. Not only will there be more jobs, but miners will also earn a higher salary. Surface miners average a salary of $42,000 while underground miners average $73,000 (Surface miners; Underground Miners). 

Combining the development of renewable technology and using more environmentally-friendly forms of mining will create overall better lifestyles for mining towns in the Appalachian Mountains. It is important to realize that the effects of Mountaintop Removal mining do not only affect the Appalachian Mountains. Although this form of mining is predominately used in the east, the streams and rivers flow all over the United States. Any area that the contaminated water feeds will be  poisoned with the heavy metals and toxins of MTR. All areas of the United States are equally affected  by MTR. 

Mountaintop Removal. (For)

    Mountaintop Removal.

 Many could question, wonder, and break down the pros to mountaintop removal, but when it comes down to it, are they really worth it?

McCoy Brothers Mining, WV. 1940-1950

MTR site after.

     Coal has been around in the Appalachians since the turn of the 20th century. Recently, however, with the high demands of coal pushing in, coal companies are stressed to have fewer workers, while keeping up with the high demands. They've found a "solution" to mining coal differently.

     Rather than digging in the bellies of mountains, they remove the top of the mountain with explosives and "harvest" the newly exposed coal seam in which was not able to show with underground mining.

Before and after a reclaimed site.

     Mountaintop removal is allowed by the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977. The SMCRA states that coal mines must be reclaimed (restored) after they are done with the site. "The condition of the land after the mining process must be equal to or better the the pre-mining conditions." And that's exactly what they do. 

     After the mining is done, and the coal is out, many companies reclaim the land. Reclaimed land as in plant shrubs, grass, trees, and many other natural resources that were once there. Many mining site have allowed wet lands to become in many places that wet lands are rare or scarce. 

Beside the point of reclaiming the lands, who do you think has to do it? Mountaintop removal creates jobs. Coal mining is still a  job, believe it or not. Many people have built their families lives around this career. Carrying on the legacy and of course, bringing in money. Over 3 million people are employed just alone in our region (4-5 states) in coal mining. Whether it's be the actual coal mining, corporate, distributors, or shipping/handling. If the loss of this should happen many would be unemployed and even poverty could be a possibility. 

 Coal is a fuel that is found in the ground. It is made of the remains of plants that died millions of years ago. Soil piled up on top of the remains and that weight compacted it into a more dense material, called coal. The energy in the coal came from the sun and was stored in the plants. When the coal is burned, it gives up that energy as heat. The coal's heat energy can then be turned into electrical energy. This happens at a power plant. The very thought that coal is becoming more and more used to power anything, is over whelming. We would no longer need oil, maybe even gas. Coal is our future. Coal keeps your lights on. Without mountaintop removal a lot of coal could never be found thus be converted to energy needs. 

Speaking of cheaper energy needs... Mountaintop removal is also energy saving because it is one of the cheapest and fastest ways of extracting coal. Michael Shnayerson,  author of the 2008 book Coal River, states that miners are able to extract one hundred percent of the 
coal from the seams of rock as opposed to only seventy percent of the coal in underground mining.  Debra Glidden, in her Environmental Encyclopedia article titled "Surface Mining," suggests that capital costs of surface mines are at least half of what the development of underground mines cost. More coal for less money? That's a no brain-er. 

Mountaintop removal has been known for the reclaimed land. But not in the sense of what I talked about earlier, but for tourist attractions. Many other old mine sites have been turned into golf courses, leveled land for shopping plazas, museums, and other entertainment purposes. With these additional things being built it has benefited in numerous ways. Such as: The coal company got their coal, the city got to build a business/building, which then leads to more money and popularity attraction to the area/region.