Water Quality.

Why are substances checked in water/effect water?

     Nitrate: High nitrate levels in water can cause methemoglobinemia or blue baby syndrome, a condition found especially in infants under six months. The stomach acid of an infant is not as strong as in older children and adults. This causes an increase in bacteria that can readily convert nitrate to nitrite (NO₂). Do not let infants drink water that exceeds 10 mg/l NO₃-N. This includes formula preparation.

Nitrite is absorbed in the blood, and hemoglobin (the oxygen-carrying component of blood) is converted to methemoglobin. Methemoglobin does not carry oxygen efficiently. This results in a reduced oxygen supply to vital tissues such as the brain. Methemoglobin in infant blood cannot change back to hemoglobin, which normally occurs in adults. Severe methemoglobinemia can result in brain damage and death.

     pH: pH is a measurement of how acidic or how alkaline something is. Your blood is maintained, as a priority above all else, at a pH of 7.3 to 7.45. Too great a variation from this optimal range is life threatening. For example, at a blood pH of about 6.95, you would likely go into a coma and, without medical help, possibly die. Skin is healthiest at a pH of about 4.7. This is very acidic. Acidic skin provides you protection against bacterial infections entering through your skin. Most external pHs are normally acidic and most internal pHs are normally alkaline. Neutral is 7.0. Anything less than 7.0 is acidic. Anything greater than 7.0 is alkaline. Everything your body does to produce energy and to continue life produces acidic waste products. To maintain life and health, your body must neutralize and/or dispose of these acids. Clinically, it has been my experience that individuals with the most chronic and the most difficult problems are those people with the most acidic bodily fluids. The results of your body being unable to neutralize and eliminate excess acidic wastes are endless. Among many others, some of the more recognizable conditions that are caused or worsened by excessively acidic conditions are:

• High blood pressure
• Diabetes
• Allergies
• Arthritis
• Cancer
• Asthma
• Degenerative joint diseases
• Osteoporosis
• Digestive problems.   - The effects on streams could mean what type of fish live there and/or other aquatic life. Fish tend to take a higher endangerment of acidic water than less acidic.  

     Conductivity: An electrical current results from the motion of electrically charged particles in response to forces that act on them from an applied electric field. Within most solid materials a current arise from the flow of electrons, which is called electronic conduction. In all conductors, semiconductors, and many insulated materials only electronic conduction exists, and the electrical conductivity is strongly dependent on the number of electrons available to participate to the conduction process. Most metals are extremely good conductors of electricity, because of the large number of free electrons that can be excited in an empty and available energy state. 
In water and ionic materials or fluids a net motion of charged ions can occur. This phenomenon produce an electric current and is called ionic conduction.Electrical conductivity is defined as the ratio between the current density (J) and the electric field intensity (e) and it is the opposite of the transitivity.

Pure water is not a good conductor of electricity. Ordinary distilled water in equilibrium with carbon dioxide of the air has a conductivity of about 10 x 10^-6 W^-1*m^-1 (20 dS/m). Because the electrical current is transported by the ions in solution, the conductivity increases as the concentration of ions increases.
Thus conductivity increases as water dissolved ionic species. Most of the time the life in streams are not effected by this.



     Turbidity: Turbidity is the measure of water clarity. The more suspended solids in the water, the murkier it becomes. The increased turbidity of water can reduce the diversity of life in three ways:

• Suspended particles absorb heat from sunlight and warm the water. Warmer water holds less oxygen and organisms begin to suffer. Also, some organisms can not live in the warmer water.
• Particles also block sunlight. Plants and algae grow less and release less oxygen from photosynthesis.
• Particles also settle on the bottom and can cover and suffocate fish eggs and insect larvae

Turbidity is often tested by dropping a Secchi disk into the water and measuring at what depth it disappears. This test is not practical in the Los Angeles River, however. Instead purchase a kit, such as the La Motte turbidity test, which involves observing a dot at the bottom of a column of water.


     Dissolved Oxygen: Dissolved oxygen analysis measures the amount of gaseous oxygen (O2) dissolved in an aqueous solution. Oxygen gets into water by diffusion from the surrounding air, by aeration (rapid movement), and as a waste product of photosynthesis. Total dissolved gas concentrations in water should not exceed 110 percent. Concentrations above this level can be harmful to aquatic life. Fish in waters containing excessive dissolved gases may suffer from "gas bubble disease"; however, this is a very rare occurrence. The bubbles or emboli block the flow of blood through blood vessels causing death. External bubbles (emphysema) can also occur and be seen on fins, on skin and on other tissue. Aquatic invertebrates are also affected by gas bubble disease but at levels higher than those lethal to fish.
Adequate dissolved oxygen is necessary for good water quality. Oxygen is a necessary element to all forms of life. Natural stream purification processes require adequate oxygen levels in order to provide for aerobic life forms. As dissolved oxygen levels in water drop below 5.0 mg/l, aquatic life is put under stress. The lower the concentration, the greater the stress. Oxygen levels that remain below 1-2 mg/l for a few hours can result in large fish kills. 

     Temperature: Temperature like any other time can obviously effect an ecosystem. Temperature in water can effect what lives there. Including bacteria. A stream is normally on the chilly side if you've ever put your feet in one on a hot summer day. Yet, it's still cold? That's due to many other things that can contribute to it. Fish tend to live and prosper in colder waters, which I always thought the opposite of. Warmer waters tend to not hold enough oxygen in the water for plant life to grow neither. Many bacteria's love warmer water, as goes for the same on dry land. Bacteria like warm, dark, damp places. What better than the stream? The amount of bacteria growth also dictates what can grow there, therefor if the aquatic life has no food due to the warmth/bacteria growing, the aquatic life can not live there as well. It as well can dictate the turbidity. 


     Alkalinity: The alkalinity of water is a measure of how much acid it can neutralize. If any changes are made to the water that could raise or lower the pH value, alkalinity acts as a buffer, protecting the water and its life forms from sudden shifts in pH. This ability to neutralize acid, or H+ ions, is particularly important in regions affected by acid rain. Total alkalinity is affected by environmental factors; rain, acidic sanitizers, addition of fill water and other product applications can all change the alkalinity over time. Most alkalinity in surface water comes from calcium carbonate, CaCO3, being leached from rocks and soil. This process is enhanced if the rocks and soil have been broken up for any reason, such as mining or urban development. Limestone contains especially high levels of calcium carbonate and when used to decrease acidity in homes can runoff into surface waters and increase alkalinity. Alkalinity is significant in the treatment of waste-water and drinking water because it will influence treatment processes such as anaerobic digestion. Water may also be unsuitable for use in irrigation if the alkalinity level in the water is higher than the natural level of alkalinity in the soil.



     E. Coli: E. coli is a type of fecal coliform bacteria commonly found in the intestines of animals and humans. E. coli is short for Escherichia coli. The presence of E. coli in water is a strong indication of recent sewage or animal waste contamination. Sewage may contain many types of disease-causing organisms. E. coli comes from human and animal wastes. During rainfalls, snow melts, or other types of precipitation, E. coli may be washed into creeks, rivers, streams, lakes, or ground water. When these waters are used as sources of drinking water and the water is not treated or inadequately treated, E. coli may end up in drinking water. 
E. coli O157:H7 is one of hundreds of strains of the bacterium E. coli. Although most strains are harmless and live in the intestines of healthy humans and animals, this strain produces a powerful toxin and can cause severe illness. Infection often causes severe bloody diarrhea and abdominal cramps; sometimes the infection causes non-bloody diarrhea. Frequently, no fever is present. It should be noted that these symptoms are common to a variety of diseases, and may be caused by sources other than contaminated drinking water.
In some people, particularly children under 5 years of age and the elderly, the infection can also cause a complication called hemolytic uremic syndrome, in which the red blood cells are destroyed and the kidneys fail. About 2%-7% of infections lead to this complication. In the United States, hemolytic uremic syndrome is the principal cause of acute kidney failure in children, and most cases of hemolytic uremic syndrome are caused by E. coli O157:H7. Hemolytic uremic syndrome is a life-threatening condition usually treated in an intensive care unit. Blood transfusions and kidney dialysis are often required. With intensive care, the death rate for hemolytic uremic syndrome is 3%-5%. The same can go for any stream life that may prosper. 




     

Opposing Mountaintop Removal.

    

You could ask yourself "do I take little things for advantage" and probably turn up with the answer of "no." When in all reality, you really don't know what you got, until it's gone...

     Mountaintop Removal is a form of surface mining that is also the leading form of coal 
removal in the Appalachian Mountains. It is done by first removing all topsoil, plants, and trees from the area that is to be mined. Explosives are then used to expose the underlying coal seams, often between 500 and 800 feet below the surface. Huge drills, called drag lines  dig deeper into the heart of the mountain to extract the coal. Coal companies prefer using drag lines when excavating coal because it requires much less human power to run these machines than traditional methods of excavation. The coal is then cleaned for safer burning and usage. The waste from cleaning the coal, however, is stored in what is essentially an open hole in the ground. The mountain is then reshaped into a plateau and grass is planted. Though minimal efforts are taken to reshape and replant what was lost, the mountains and surrounding communities are severely affected by MTR and are never left the same. Bills such as the Appalachia Restoration Act aim to protect mining communities from the harm of MTR by regulating waste dumped into sources of drinking water and reducing MTR itself. Support for such bills is necessary in order to preserve our natural environment, and protect the towns and people in the surrounding areas of the Appalachian Mountains.


One of the reasons Mountaintop Removal is such a popular form of mining today is because 
it is one of the cheapest and fastest ways of extracting coal. Michael Shnayerson, author of the 2008 book Coal River, states that miners are able to extract one hundred percent of the coal from the seams of rock as opposed to only seventy percent of the coal in underground mining. Debra Glidden, in her Environmental Encyclopedia article titled "Surface Mining," suggests that capital costs of surface mines are at least half of what the development of underground mines cost. 

Though MTR may be more productive in producing coal, it is imperative to look at how MTR is negatively affecting the environment and at other alternatives to obtaining coal. One must then ask if the pros of Mountaintop Removal mining outweigh the damaging effects it has on the environment and our people. MTR produces a huge amount of waste and debris that pollutes surrounding communities. After using explosives to blast away the sides of mountains, debris coats the towns in valleys below. MTR also produces large amounts of sulfur from the coal. In 2009, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) stated that "exposure to high concentrations of sulfur dioxide can include effects on breathing, respiratory illness, alterations in pulmonary defenses, and aggravation of existing cardiovascular disease." In addition, sulfur emissions from coal mining can cause damage to historic buildings. 

In addition to the debris that falls over the towns, MTR pollutes nearby rivers. Solid waste from mining is literally dumped into the valleys and streams below. Many harmful toxins such as iron, arsenic, and lead contaminate the rivers and streams. According to Glidden, one of the products of Mountaintop Removal is acid. The acid and minerals from the runoff contaminate the water supply and make it extremely unsafe to consume. Many residents of nearby communities suffer from "liver and kidney problems, various forms of cancer, and skin rashes" as a result of long-term exposure to such minerals and acids. Other organisms are also directly affected by MTR. Another statement by the EPA said that pollutants in the water from MTR had a "negative impact on fish and macro invertebrates leading to a less diverse and more pollutant tolerant species". The forests are being torn down before blasting. 

Compared to the hundreds of years it takes to grow such a forest, man cuts it down in less than a few months. Some animals are forced out of the way, migratory patterns of birds are disrupted, and the organisms that can't move out of the way quickly enough are killed. Although it is mandated by the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 that miners must restore vegetation after reclamation of mining sites, the leveled mountains are often used as grazing pastures for animals. The trees are replaced by grass which not only does not produce as much oxygen as trees, but also does not grow as well because of the acidic soil. The effects of MTR on all life in the surrounding areas are devastating.

Another extreme danger of Mountaintop Removal is that the liquid waste produced by MTR is stored in what is called a coal slurry impoundment. The waste is whatever material is leftover from the coal cleaning process, often a mixture of "water, coal dust, clay, and toxic chemicals such as arsenic, mercury, lead, copper, and chromium" One impoundment can hold billions of gallons of waste from a single facility. Sometimes, due to lack of care to the structure of these dams, the impoundments will breach and flood entire the community. On February 26, 1972, 132 million gallons of coal sludge flooded Buffalo Creek Hollow in Logan County, West Virginia, with disastrous results: "125 were killed, 1,100 were injured, and 4,000 were left homeless". Because impoundments are often located less than a mile away from mining communities, many towns are in danger of seeing similar disasters. Mountaintop Removal mining is not worth risking the lives of innocent bystanders. 

MTR miners worry that if we discontinue Mountaintop Removal, they will lose their jobs and not have any way to pay bills and care for their families. However, one of the reasons coal companies look to MTR as the preferred method of mining is because it does not require a large labor force. If we reintroduce underground mining to Appalachia, miners will find there will actually be a higher demand for miners. Not only will there be more jobs, but miners will also earn a higher salary. Surface miners average a salary of $42,000 while underground miners average $73,000 (Surface miners; Underground Miners). 

Combining the development of renewable technology and using more environmentally-friendly forms of mining will create overall better lifestyles for mining towns in the Appalachian Mountains. It is important to realize that the effects of Mountaintop Removal mining do not only affect the Appalachian Mountains. Although this form of mining is predominately used in the east, the streams and rivers flow all over the United States. Any area that the contaminated water feeds will be  poisoned with the heavy metals and toxins of MTR. All areas of the United States are equally affected  by MTR. 

Mountaintop Removal. (For)

    Mountaintop Removal.

 Many could question, wonder, and break down the pros to mountaintop removal, but when it comes down to it, are they really worth it?

McCoy Brothers Mining, WV. 1940-1950

MTR site after.

     Coal has been around in the Appalachians since the turn of the 20th century. Recently, however, with the high demands of coal pushing in, coal companies are stressed to have fewer workers, while keeping up with the high demands. They've found a "solution" to mining coal differently.

     Rather than digging in the bellies of mountains, they remove the top of the mountain with explosives and "harvest" the newly exposed coal seam in which was not able to show with underground mining.

Before and after a reclaimed site.

     Mountaintop removal is allowed by the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977. The SMCRA states that coal mines must be reclaimed (restored) after they are done with the site. "The condition of the land after the mining process must be equal to or better the the pre-mining conditions." And that's exactly what they do. 

     After the mining is done, and the coal is out, many companies reclaim the land. Reclaimed land as in plant shrubs, grass, trees, and many other natural resources that were once there. Many mining site have allowed wet lands to become in many places that wet lands are rare or scarce. 

Beside the point of reclaiming the lands, who do you think has to do it? Mountaintop removal creates jobs. Coal mining is still a  job, believe it or not. Many people have built their families lives around this career. Carrying on the legacy and of course, bringing in money. Over 3 million people are employed just alone in our region (4-5 states) in coal mining. Whether it's be the actual coal mining, corporate, distributors, or shipping/handling. If the loss of this should happen many would be unemployed and even poverty could be a possibility. 

 Coal is a fuel that is found in the ground. It is made of the remains of plants that died millions of years ago. Soil piled up on top of the remains and that weight compacted it into a more dense material, called coal. The energy in the coal came from the sun and was stored in the plants. When the coal is burned, it gives up that energy as heat. The coal's heat energy can then be turned into electrical energy. This happens at a power plant. The very thought that coal is becoming more and more used to power anything, is over whelming. We would no longer need oil, maybe even gas. Coal is our future. Coal keeps your lights on. Without mountaintop removal a lot of coal could never be found thus be converted to energy needs. 

Speaking of cheaper energy needs... Mountaintop removal is also energy saving because it is one of the cheapest and fastest ways of extracting coal. Michael Shnayerson,  author of the 2008 book Coal River, states that miners are able to extract one hundred percent of the 
coal from the seams of rock as opposed to only seventy percent of the coal in underground mining.  Debra Glidden, in her Environmental Encyclopedia article titled "Surface Mining," suggests that capital costs of surface mines are at least half of what the development of underground mines cost. More coal for less money? That's a no brain-er. 

Mountaintop removal has been known for the reclaimed land. But not in the sense of what I talked about earlier, but for tourist attractions. Many other old mine sites have been turned into golf courses, leveled land for shopping plazas, museums, and other entertainment purposes. With these additional things being built it has benefited in numerous ways. Such as: The coal company got their coal, the city got to build a business/building, which then leads to more money and popularity attraction to the area/region. 

Coalwood, WV.

     Coalwood, West Virginia is located in McDowell County and was a company owned town founded by George Lafayette Carter in 1905. It is mainly recognized by the home town of The Rocket Boys by Homer Hickam and the movie October Sky based on the book. The first inhabitants of the area, though, founded the community of Snakeroot at the junction of Wolfpen Branch and Clear Fork Branch, and the post office was established on September 20, 1869. The Coalwood post office was founded on March 12, 1903, the same year that Carter purchased 20,000 acres of land for the underground coal reserves. He then founded Carter Coal Company, which is the mining company that owned the coal town. In 1904, work began on constructing the West Virginia Southwestern Railway from its junction with the Norfolk & Western at Gordon along the Tug Fork west of Roderfield. The 9 mile branch was completed to Coalwood and opened on April 10, 1905, and was owned and operated by the Norfold & Western as their Clear Fork Branch. The first shaft mine opened at Coalwood in 1914. The companies of Carter Coal and Coke Co, operated the mines and town at Coalwood until Consolidation Coal Co. purchased the operation in 1922. This arrangement lasted until 1933, when Consolidation Coal Co., in dire financial straits form fighting the UMWA, let the properties go back to Carter. As of the 1990 Census, the population was 900. It is estimated around 300-400 people lived there of the time the coal camp was being taken place. The Carter Coal Company and built offices, houses, a schoolhouse, the Carter Coal Company Store, a church, and more. Carter hired a dentist and a doctor to provide service to his miners. They were not paid in regular currency, but script. Most coal companies used this as a way to "trap" the miners, because they indeed could NOT use that specially made script anywhere else. In 1936, Carter died and the company was taken over by his son James, who in 1947 sold it to a group of industrialists who changed the company name to Olga Coal Company. In 1956 the Coalwood mine was connected underground to the nearby Caretta mine, which was also owned by Olga, and in 1959, Olga ceased bringing coal to the surface via Coalwood. At the peak of this boom, population reached of over 2,000.

Olga Company Coal Script formerly
used in Coalwood. 

In 1980, the Olga Coal Company was bought by the LTV Corporation, which closed Coalwood's mine in 1986. People still live in Coalwood, but have to depend on other jobs to make ends meet. The Big Store in Coalwood was torn down on March 29, 2008, by the owners of the historic Coalwood properties, Alawest, The tipple has been dismantled and the site of the old abandoned mine is now fenced in with a car wash adjacent to it and a convenience store across the highway.

October Sky Festival.
Once a year, in October, Coalwood hosted an October Sky festival in honor of the accomplishments of the Rocket Boys. Unfortunately, the Cape Coalwood Restoration Association announced that the 13th October Sky festival, had been the last one. 

Coalwood is still inhabited by many people making honest livings and earnings, just not by the Coalwood mines. Mines were shut down and boarded up near the 1980's, as well as many other historical land mines in the town. It is mainly a tourist attraction now an days. The Homer Hickman house has also been preserved for touring. But the Coalwood legend and history will forever stay. 

Surface Mining.

Surface Mining.

1. Strip Mining.

Strip Mining is used when coal is near the surface of when the overburden is unstable. As mining progresses, the overburden is placed in the previous mine cavity. The mining is done in long, narrow strips. The waste, dirt, and rock that they take off of the top of the next strip is to put on top of the last one. Explosives are put in holes and blasted. The sizes of the chunks usually matter, considering, the miners want to be able to move the larger pieces with machinery. Advantages include easier, faster work. Most of the time, bigger quantities. Disadvantages are it ends up hurting the areas around the strip mining. The rock, trees, gravel, vegetation, etc... is dumped into the mine or areas around the mine. When it rains, the rain floods the mine, travelling to water sources and contaminates the water. To reclaim land, mining companies need to fix the land how it was before hand. Different mineral ores and coal is mined this way. 

2. Contour Mining.

Contour mining is a type of surface mining that follows the contour of a hill or mountain leaving terraces in the mountainside. This method is often used in areas that has steep terrain. The limitations of contour mining are both economical and technical. When the operation reaches a predetermined stripping ratio, it is not profitable to continue(disadvantage). Depending on the equipment available, it may not be technically feasible to exceed a certain height of high wall(disadvantage). At this point, it is possible to produce more coal with the augering method in which spiral drills bore tunnels into highwall laterally from the bench to extract coal without removing the overburden. This method could highly benefit states with such mountainous ranges(advantage). 




3. Mountaintop Removal. 
Tops of hills are removes to access horizontal  coal seams. Overburden is pushed to areas between high elevators. Following reclamation, the original contour is not restored. This is the most controversial mining method(advantage). This method of mining usually leaves mountain tops to flat plateaus. Many ecosystems and habitats are largely damaged and possibly permanently damaged. This method could cover up or stop flowing streams which could disrupt other actions being used with the stream.  


Hyperlink to access more knowledge on this subject.


Photocredits:
(Strip Mining) library.thinkquest.org
(Contour Mining) contourmining.com
(Mountaintop Removal) mountainroadshow.com

Underground Coal Mining.

                                                          
Underground Coal Mining. 

There are 5 types/ways of underground coal mining. 

1: Drift Mining.

Drift Mining is possible where the coal seam intersects the surface. The mine enters the seam in a horizontal direction following the coal. A drift may or may not intersect the ground surface. This kind of mining is done when the rock or mineral is on the side of a hill. The advantages is drift mining is much cheaper and much safer. Drift mining also has vertical access shafts. It is also much easier to transport ore out of the mine itself. Some disadvantages include the possibility of flooding. You can drain a drift mine with water, and still work as long as the adit is not blocked. 

2. Shaft Mining.

.

Shaft Mining is the most common method accessing a coal seam in which elevators provide access to mines. Shaft coal mines in West Virginia are commonly deeper than 1,000 ft below the surface. (Also deepest form of underground mining.) Coal, gold, and copper are commonly mined in this form. When the ore is dynamited and broken into chunks, it is then put on a type of pulley system to be loaded into trucks. Much faster and conventional, would be an advantage. Also, moving air ventilates the gases that are naturally underground, for safer breathing. A disadvantage to this is tunnels are deepened and the mine is made larger until there isn't any ore left, or it costs too much money to get it out. Most shaft mines are filled and blocked with cement to prevent the land around it from sinking and rotting away. It's the safer way to close a mine. 

3. Room & Pillar Mining. 
Nearly half the coal is left behind to support the mine roof. The pillars can "squeeze" putting pressure on adjacent pillars leading to the to collapse. Roof falls are a constant danger. It is used to mine coal, iron, metal substances, soda ash, and potash. Disadvantages include a lot of mining/work, to have not a lot to come out with. The pillars help hold the roof up, yet can easily fall none the less. Advantages is it can be much faster than some mining. The pillars are removed or pulled to the front of the mine, to let it collapse behind to close it. 

4: Continuous Mining.
Machines can be used with drift or room & pillar mines. One miner can operate a continuous miner to a rotating steel drum with tungsten carbide teeth to mine 5 tons of coal per minute. Varieties of continuous mining machines have been in use since the 1940's. Advantages are it produces the lowest cost per ton a customer. Continuous mining accounts for about 45% of the underground mining. Disadvantages are not a lot of roof support. It's slowly become one of the more efficient way to mine.




5: Longwall Mining.

Highly efficient. Huge mining machines support the roof with hydraulics as it removes the coal. Once the coal is removed, the machine retreats allowing the roof to fall behind it. It extracts much more of the coal than the room & pillar mining techniques. Advantages include better resource recovery, fewer roof support, the miners' safety is better when they are extracting coal. Some disadvantages are, when the mining is done, and the hydraulics are taken away, the roof collapses, and could have a very severe, damaging impact of rivers and foundations of building. 

Hyperlink to access more knowledge.

Picture credits go to:
 (Drift Mining) en.wikipedia.org
 (Shaft Mining) dogcanyon.org
 (Room & Pillar Mining) mitchellpays.com
 (Continuous Mining) ohiovalleycoal.com
 (Longwall Mining) coalleader.com 

Aerosols Effect on U.H.I.E and G.E.

    How do aerosols effect climate change through the Urban Heat Island Effect and Greenhouse Effect?  

     Well, to start, aerosols are tiny particles suspended in the air, both natural and industrial, including sea salt, mineral dust, ash, soot, sulphates, nitrates, and black carbon. They hang around in the air for around 10 days, scattering and absorbing radiation from the sun. Aerosols also provide nuclei for water droplets, boosting cloud formation, thus decreasing the amount of energy reaching the ground and providing a net cooling force. In short, greenhouse gases warm the surface; aerosols cool the surface. A greenhouse gas (sometimes abbreviated GHG) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range. This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect.  The primary greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere are water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Aerosols, via clouds, reduce energy reaching the ocean, contributing a net cooling effect to both the surface and subsurface ocean temperature. In the U.K. model, the aerosol’s cooling effect is so strong it even cancels out any greenhouse gas-induced warming. However, actual observations show a much warmer ocean. Thus we are left with the knowledge that action to address the greenhouse gas versus aerosol problem will likely have to proceed without precise quantification of their respective temperature effects on climate.  

Coal Formation

                                                   How Coal Was Formed.
The plants which formed coal captured energy from the sun through photosynthesis to create the compounds that make up plant tissues. The most important element in the plant material is carbon, which gives coal most of its energy. Most of our coal was formed about 300 million years ago, when much of the earth was covered by steamy swamps. As plants and trees died, their remains sank to the bottom of the swampy areas burying layer upon layer and eventually forming a soggy, dense material called peat. Pressure caused by their weight squeezed water from the peat. Increasingly deeper burial and the heat associated with it gradually changed the material to coal.

                                                   Stages of Development.
1. Forest and Bog: Low land water accumulated above the trees and vegetation. It does not have any definite shape. It is a jelly like material. It is grayish in color. It does not have any structure because it is not solidified. All the structure that is present in the original plant are present in the bog mass.

2. Peat:It has not yet attained the hardness as coal, is friable in nature. It does not have any definite structure. Peat has not yet been affected by heat and pressure. It is purely sedimentary in nature. It is light, porous and fibrous substance light grayish brown to dark brown color

3. Lignite: It is fragile and breaks into powder on handling. It is dull brown to blackish brown in
color. It does not have any clear structure. Since it is very little affected by heat and pressure, it has not attained and design. Some much more matured lignite has within it the macerals. Some of the lower rank lignite possesses clear remains of plant structures. Since it is very near to low rank coal, its heat value is quite
substantial.

4. Bituminous: It has been formed due to slow application of heat and static pressure. It is pitch to dark black in color. The physical properties of bituminous coal are determined by the percentage
distribution of macerals groups, such as vitrain, clarin, durain and fusain. Bituminous coal covers a wide range of variety, from low volatile, low moisture to high volatile; high moisture. It is considered as all purpose coal because of its excellent heating quality. Calorific value ranges between 11000-15000 B.Th.U (6100-
8300 K.Cal/kg).

Aerosols.

What effect may aerosols may have on climate change?

The ocean is a major source of natural aerosols. Air-sea exchange of particulate matter contributes to the global cycles of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur aerosols. Four other significant sources of aerosols are terrestrial biomass burning, volcanic eruptions, windblown dust from arid and semi-arid regions, and pollution from industrial emissions. Natural variations of aerosols, especially due to episodic large eruptions of volcanoes, have a large amount of faulty for climate change. There are several ways in which humans are altering atmospheric aerosols and not only near the ground. Aerosols force climate in two ways, direct, and indirect. The effect of aerosols on clouds is highly speculative. The theory is that the more aerosol, the smaller the cloud droplets tend to be, and clouds with more but smaller drops have a higher albedo. This would increase the planetary albedo, thus have a cooling effect.